Book Lab Tests

🧪 Thyroxine-Binding Globulin (TBG) Test The Thyroxine-Binding Globulin (TBG) test measures the amount of TBG protein in your blood. TBG is a transport protein that binds to thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and carries them through the bloodstream. It’s not a routine thyroid function test, but it’s useful in special cases when thyroid hormone levels seem abnormal but TSH, Free T3, and Free T4 don’t fully explain symptoms. 🧬 What Is TBG? Feature Description Full Name Thyroxine-Binding Globulin Main Role Binds to and transports T3 and T4 Bound Hormones Are inactive (only free hormones are active) Produced by Liver 📊 Normal Reference Range (May vary by lab) Test Normal Range TBG 15 – 30 µg/mL (or) 1.3 – 2.0 mg/L 📈 High or 📉 Low TBG – What It Means 📈 Increased TBG More hormone is bound, less Free T4/T3 available (but Total T4/T3 may be high) Causes: Pregnancy (due to estrogen) Estrogen therapy (e.g., oral contraceptives) Hepatitis Genetic increase in TBG 📉 Decreased TBG Less hormone is bound, more Free T4/T3 relative to Total Causes: Liver disease Nephrotic syndrome Corticosteroid use Androgens or anabolic steroids Genetic TBG deficiency 🧪 Why Is the TBG Test Done? Use Case Purpose Unexplained high or low Total T4/T3 To assess if altered due to binding issues Pregnancy or hormone therapy Understand changes in thyroid tests Suspected inherited TBG disorder Evaluate genetic binding protein conditions 🧾 Example Lab Report Test Result Reference Range Thyroxine-Binding Globulin 28 µg/mL 15 – 30 µg/mL ✅ Interpretation: TBG within normal limits — does not affect total/free T3/T4 interpretation. 🧠 Important Notes TBG does not measure thyroid hormone levels directly. Use Free T3 and Free T4 to assess actual thyroid hormone activity. If Total T4 is high and Free T4 is normal, elevated TBG might be the reason. ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Thyroxine-Binding Globulin (TBG) Function Binds and transports thyroid hormones High TBG Seen in pregnancy, estrogen therapy Low TBG Seen in liver disease, steroid use Best Used With Total and Free T4/T3 levels

🧪 TVS Scan (Transvaginal Sonography) Transvaginal Sonography (TVS) is a pelvic ultrasound scan performed using a probe inserted into the vagina. It provides high-resolution images of female reproductive organs, including the uterus, endometrium, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and cervix. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Transvaginal Sonography (TVS) Also Known As Endovaginal Ultrasound Sample Type Imaging (vaginal ultrasound probe) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Bladder Status ❌ Empty bladder preferred Duration 10–20 minutes Performed By Radiologist or OB/GYN with ultrasonography training Radiation? ❌ None 🧬 Clinical Uses of TVS Evaluate abnormal uterine bleeding or irregular cycles Monitor follicular development in infertility treatments Detect ovarian cysts, fibroids, polyps, or ectopic pregnancy Assess endometrial thickness (e.g., in postmenopausal bleeding) Confirm early pregnancy and fetal heartbeat Diagnose pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) Assist in IUD placement evaluation 📊 Common Parameters Assessed Structure What’s Measured/Observed Uterus Size, shape, fibroids, position Endometrium Thickness, uniformity (varies with menstrual phase) Ovaries Follicle count, cysts, masses Pouch of Douglas Presence of fluid (may suggest infection or rupture) Cervix Length, funneling (in pregnancy), abnormalities 📅 When Is It Performed? Day 2–5 of cycle: For baseline fertility assessment Mid-cycle: To monitor ovulation or follicular growth During pregnancy: For early viability scan (around 6–9 weeks) Postmenopausal: To evaluate endometrial thickness or bleeding ✅ Summary Test Transvaginal Sonography (TVS) Purpose Detailed pelvic organ imaging Safe for Pregnancy ✅ Yes – especially early pregnancy Invasive? Minimally (vaginal probe insertion) Radiation ❌ None

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🧪 Food Allergy Profile (Vegetarians) The Food Allergy Profile (Vegetarian) is a blood test that screens for IgE-mediated allergic reactions to common vegetarian foods. It helps identify which plant-based foods may be triggering allergic symptoms such as: Skin rashes (eczema, hives) Gastrointestinal upset (bloating, diarrhea) Respiratory issues (sneezing, wheezing) Anaphylaxis (in rare severe cases) 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Vegetarian Food Allergy Panel (IgE) Sample Type Blood (Serum) Method ImmunoCAP / ELISA (specific IgE antibodies) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 3–5 working days Units kU/L (kilo units per liter) 🍅 Typical Vegetarian Food Allergens Included Depending on the lab, panels may vary slightly, but commonly include: Food Item Examples Legumes Soybean, Lentil, Pea, Chickpea Grains Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats Nuts & Seeds Peanut, Almond, Walnut, Sesame Vegetables Tomato, Potato, Spinach, Eggplant Fruits Banana, Apple, Kiwi, Mango Others Mustard, Coconut, Corn, Garlic 📊 Interpretation of Results (IgE Levels) IgE Level (kU/L) Class Allergy Risk < 0.35 Class 0 Negative 0.35 – 0.69 Class 1 Low/Borderline 0.70 – 3.49 Class 2 Moderate sensitivity 3.50 – 17.49 Class 3 High sensitivity ≥17.5 Class 4+ Very high sensitivity ⚠️ Note: A positive IgE test doesn't always mean clinical allergy — correlation with symptoms and physician evaluation is essential. 🧬 When Is This Test Recommended? Unexplained allergic symptoms after vegetarian meals History of eczema, asthma, or hay fever Evaluation for oral allergy syndrome Diet planning for suspected food allergies Pediatric allergy workup for plant-based foods ✅ Summary Test Vegetarian Food Allergy Panel (IgE) Sample Serum (Blood) Analyzes Specific IgE to plant-based foods Useful For Identifying vegetarian food allergens Next Steps Diet modification, allergist referral, oral food challenge

A hemoglobin test is a common blood test that measures the amount of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body and returning carbon dioxide back to the lungs. 🔬 Why It's Done: Doctors order this test to: Check for anemia (low hemoglobin) Monitor a known blood disorder (e.g. sickle cell, thalassemia) Assess general health as part of a complete blood count (CBC) Check for polycythemia (high hemoglobin) 📉 Normal Hemoglobin Ranges: These values can vary slightly between labs: Group Normal Range (g/dL) Men 13.8 – 17.2 Women 12.1 – 15.1 Children 11.0 – 16.0 Pregnant women 11.0 – 12.0 (lower) 🔻 Low Hemoglobin (Anemia) Causes: Iron deficiency Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency Chronic diseases (kidney, cancer) Blood loss (injury, menstruation) Bone marrow problems 🔺 High Hemoglobin Causes: Dehydration Lung or heart disease Living at high altitudes Smoking Polycythemia vera (a bone marrow disorder) 🧪 How the Test Is Done: A healthcare provider draws a blood sample from your arm. No fasting or special preparation is usually needed (unless part of a broader test panel).

🧪 Food Allergy Profile (Non-Vegetarian) The Food Allergy Profile for Non-Vegetarians is a diagnostic blood test that detects IgE antibodies against common non-vegetarian food allergens. It helps identify food items that may trigger allergic reactions like skin rashes, gastrointestinal discomfort, respiratory issues, or anaphylaxis. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Food Allergy Profile – Non-Vegetarian Sample Type Blood (serum) Method Immunoassay (e.g. ELISA, CLIA, ImmunoCAP) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 3–7 days Analytes Total IgE + Specific IgE to non-vegetarian foods 🍗 Non-Vegetarian Allergens Commonly Included Category Examples Tested Meat Chicken, Mutton, Beef, Pork Eggs Egg White, Egg Yolk Seafood Fish (Tuna, Salmon, Cod, Sardine), Shrimp, Crab, Lobster, Squid Dairy Proteins Cow Milk, Buffalo Milk, Casein, Whey (often included if requested) 📊 Result Interpretation (Specific IgE Levels) IgE Level (kU/L) Class Interpretation < 0.35 Class 0 Negative 0.35–0.70 Class 1 Low sensitivity (possible sensitization) 0.71–3.50 Class 2 Moderate allergy likelihood 3.51–17.50 Class 3 High sensitivity >17.50 Class 4–6 Strong to severe sensitivity ⚠️ Possible Symptoms of Non-Veg Food Allergy Itchy skin, hives, eczema Nausea, vomiting, bloating Wheezing, nasal congestion Swelling of lips or throat Anaphylaxis (in severe seafood/meat allergy cases) 🧬 When to Consider This Test History of reactions after eating meat, seafood, or eggs Unexplained skin or digestive issues Family history of allergies Atopic conditions like asthma, eczema, or allergic rhinitis ✅ Summary Test Food Allergy Profile (Non-Vegetarian) Purpose Detect IgE-mediated allergies to non-veg foods Includes Meat, Eggs, Seafood (customizable) Method IgE Immunoassay (e.g., ELISA, CLIA) Fasting Needed No Result Format Quantitative IgE levels with Class grading Next Steps Allergen elimination, antihistamines, epinephrine (if severe)

🧪 Food Tolerance Test – Overview & Clinical Insight A Food Tolerance Test assesses how your body reacts to specific foods or food components—not through an immune-mediated allergic reaction, but via non-immunologic responses, commonly referred to as food sensitivities or intolerances. These reactions are typically delayed and can affect digestion, metabolism, or other physiological systems. 🔬 Types of Food Tolerance Tests Test Type What It Measures Common Uses Lactose Tolerance Test Hydrogen in breath or blood glucose after lactose ingestion Diagnose lactose intolerance Fructose Tolerance Test Hydrogen breath test or symptom tracking Diagnose fructose malabsorption Gluten Sensitivity Testing Excludes celiac markers (tTG, EMA) + symptom tracking Diagnose non-celiac gluten sensitivity Food-Specific IgG Testing IgG antibodies to 90–270 foods (controversial) Evaluate delayed food sensitivities (caution) Elimination Diet & Challenge Gold standard: Remove suspected foods, reintroduce systematically Identify problematic foods via symptoms Histamine Intolerance Test DAO enzyme activity + histamine levels Diagnose histamine intolerance (e.g., red wine, cheese) FODMAP Sensitivity Test Often done via elimination & breath testing Identify fermentable carb intolerance ⚠️ Important Note on IgG Food Testing Many commercial "Food Intolerance Tests" check IgG antibodies to various foods. Medical consensus (e.g., AAAAI, EAACI): IgG levels often reflect exposure, not intolerance. Elevated IgG does not prove intolerance. These tests may lead to unnecessary food restrictions if misinterpreted. 📊 Typical Food Intolerance Symptoms System Symptoms GI Tract Bloating, diarrhea, constipation, gas, nausea Neurological Headache, migraine, foggy thinking, fatigue Skin Eczema, rashes, acne, itching Respiratory Nasal congestion, sinusitis Mood/Behavioral Irritability, depression, anxiety 🧬 Common Intolerances to Test/Monitor Food Component Example Sources Test Type Lactose Milk, cheese, ice cream Lactose breath test Gluten (non-celiac) Bread, pasta, wheat Exclusion & challenge Fructose Fruits, honey, soft drinks Fructose breath test Histamine Aged cheese, wine, smoked meat DAO enzyme test Salicylates Spices, tomatoes, berries Elimination diet FODMAPs Onion, garlic, beans, apples FODMAP diet testing Additives (sulfites, MSG) Packaged foods, wine, sauces Symptom challenge testing ✅ Best Practices Gold Standard: Elimination and food challenge under dietitian or doctor supervision. IgG Food Panel: May provide clues but should not be used alone for diagnosis. Combine: Symptom diary + targeted tests (like lactose breath test) for accuracy. ✅ Summary Table Test Food Tolerance Test Used For Identifying food sensitivities and intolerances Types IgG panels, hydrogen breath tests, elimination diets Best For Digestive complaints, skin issues, fatigue, migraines Caution IgG levels ≠ clinical intolerance (not allergy-specific) Clinical Guidance Always interpret with physician/dietitian support

🧪 Food Allergy – Milk Panel (IgE Test) The Milk Allergy Panel detects IgE antibodies specific to various milk proteins. It helps diagnose IgE-mediated allergic reactions to cow’s milk and related dairy products, which are common in infants, children, and some adults. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Milk Allergy Panel (IgE) Sample Type Blood (Serum) Method Immunoassay (e.g., ImmunoCAP, ELISA) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 2–4 working days Units kU/L (kilo units per liter) 🥛 Milk Proteins Commonly Tested Allergen Component Description Whole Cow’s Milk General milk protein profile Casein Heat-stable protein, major cause of persistent allergy α-Lactalbumin Whey protein, often triggers symptoms β-Lactoglobulin Whey protein, common allergen in infants Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) Minor component; cross-reactive with beef 📊 Result Interpretation (IgE Levels) IgE Level (kU/L) Class Risk of Allergy < 0.35 Class 0 Negative 0.35 – 0.69 Class 1 Borderline/Low 0.70 – 3.49 Class 2 Moderate 3.50 – 17.49 Class 3 High 17.50 – 49.99 Class 4 Very High ≥ 50 Class 5–6 Extremely High 🔎 Note: IgE presence indicates sensitization, but clinical correlation is essential—not all positive tests indicate true allergy. 🧬 Common Symptoms of Milk Allergy Skin: Eczema, hives, itching GI: Vomiting, colic, diarrhea, bloating Respiratory: Wheezing, nasal congestion Severe: Anaphylaxis (rare but serious) ❗ Differentiating Milk Allergy vs. Lactose Intolerance Milk Allergy Lactose Intolerance Immune system (IgE-mediated) Enzyme deficiency (lactase) Involves proteins (casein, whey) Involves sugar (lactose) Onset: Minutes to hours Onset: Hours after ingestion Symptoms: Rash, swelling, wheeze, GI Symptoms: Bloating, gas, diarrhea ✅ Summary Test Milk Allergy Panel (IgE-based) Components Analyzed Whole milk, casein, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, BSA Purpose Diagnose IgE-mediated milk protein allergy Population Commonly used in infants, children, allergic individuals Follow-Up Elimination diet, allergist consultation, possible oral food challenge

🧪 Allergy Dust Panel (Serum Specific IgE Test) The Dust Allergy Panel is a specific IgE test that identifies allergic sensitization to common indoor allergens, especially house dust mites, which are among the leading causes of allergic rhinitis, asthma, and eczema. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Dust Allergy Panel (Specific IgE) Sample Type Blood (serum) Method Immunoassay (e.g., ImmunoCAP, ELISA) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 3–5 working days Units kU/L (kilo units per liter of specific IgE) 🧫 Common Allergens in Dust Panel Allergen Source Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus House dust mite (European) Dermatophagoides farinae House dust mite (American) Blomia tropicalis Tropical dust mite Cockroach Antigen (e.g., Bla g 1) Kitchen/bathroom surfaces Storage Mite Mix (e.g., Tyrophagus, Acarus) Stored food/grains House Dust (Mixed Sample) Composite of dust particles from home Mold Spores (Optional) May be added depending on lab (e.g., Alternaria) 📊 IgE Class Reference Range IgE Level (kU/L) Class Clinical Interpretation < 0.35 Class 0 Negative 0.35 – 0.69 Class 1 Low Sensitization 0.70 – 3.49 Class 2 Moderate 3.50 – 17.49 Class 3 High 17.50 – 49.99 Class 4 Very High ≥ 50.0 Class 5–6 Extremely High ⚠️ A positive result suggests sensitization, but clinical correlation is essential to determine if it's causing symptoms. 🤧 Common Symptoms of Dust Allergy Sneezing, runny or blocked nose (rhinitis) Itchy, watery eyes Chronic cough Asthma (wheezing, shortness of breath) Eczema flares Sinus pressure or headaches 🧬 Clinical Utility Confirm house dust mite or cockroach allergy Aid in diagnosing allergic asthma or rhinitis Guide treatment including allergen avoidance and immunotherapy Evaluate indoor air quality risk 🧹 Dust Allergy Management Tips Use HEPA filters and air purifiers Encasement covers for mattresses and pillows Remove carpets, stuffed toys, and other dust collectors Frequent cleaning with damp cloth and hot water washing Control indoor humidity (<50%) ✅ Summary Panel Name Dust Allergy Panel (Specific IgE) Purpose Detect sensitization to indoor dust allergens Sample Blood (serum) Includes House dust mites, cockroach, storage mites Recommended For Allergic rhinitis, asthma, eczema sufferers

🧪 Allergy Animal Panel (Serum Specific IgE Test) The Animal Allergy Panel detects IgE antibodies in blood against common animal allergens, helping to diagnose IgE-mediated allergic reactions to animal dander, saliva, and urine. This test is commonly used for individuals with respiratory symptoms (e.g., asthma, rhinitis) that worsen around animals. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Animal Allergy Panel (Specific IgE) Sample Type Blood (serum) Method Immunoassay (e.g., ImmunoCAP, ELISA) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 3–5 working days Units kU/L (kilo units per liter of IgE) 🐾 Common Allergens Included Allergen Source Cat Dander (Fel d 1) Skin, saliva, fur (cats) Dog Dander (Can f 1, Can f 5) Saliva, skin (dogs) Horse Dander Hair, sweat, skin Mouse Urine Protein Bedding, air in infested spaces Rat Epithelium/Urine Lab exposure, pet rats Guinea Pig Epithelium Fur, skin flakes Rabbit Epithelium Skin, fur Feather Mix (e.g., Chicken, Duck, Goose) Bedding, pillows Sheep Wool Clothing, blankets 📊 IgE Class Reference Range IgE Level (kU/L) Class Clinical Significance < 0.35 Class 0 Negative 0.35 – 0.69 Class 1 Low Sensitization 0.70 – 3.49 Class 2 Moderate 3.50 – 17.49 Class 3 High 17.50 – 49.99 Class 4 Very High ≥ 50 Class 5–6 Extremely High ⚠️ Note: Positive results indicate sensitization but may not always cause symptoms. Correlate clinically. 🤧 Common Symptoms of Animal Allergy Sneezing, nasal congestion Itchy, watery eyes Cough, wheezing, asthma Skin rashes, hives Exacerbation of eczema 🧬 Clinical Utility Diagnose pet or occupational animal allergies Guide allergen avoidance strategies Support immunotherapy decisions Evaluate risk of asthma or allergic rhinitis ✅ Summary Panel Name Animal Allergy Panel (IgE) Components Dander from cats, dogs, rodents, horses, birds, etc. Test Purpose Detect allergic sensitization to animals Population Individuals with respiratory or skin symptoms triggered by animal exposure Follow-Up Allergen avoidance, antihistamines, or allergy shots (immunotherapy)

🧪 Aspergillus fumigatus Test Aspergillus fumigatus is a species of fungus that can cause a range of illnesses, especially in people with weakened immune systems, lung disease, or allergies. Laboratory testing for Aspergillus fumigatus is used to detect infection, colonization, or allergic responses. 🧬 What Is Aspergillus fumigatus? A common mold found in the environment (soil, decaying leaves, compost). Normally harmless, but can cause illness in immunocompromised individuals or those with lung conditions. 🧪 Common Tests for Aspergillus fumigatus Test Name Purpose Aspergillus IgG antibody Detects chronic or subacute infection (e.g., CPA) Aspergillus IgE antibody Detects allergic reaction (e.g., ABPA) Aspergillus Galactomannan Detects fungal antigen in blood or BAL fluid; helpful in invasive aspergillosis Fungal culture Grows the fungus from sputum or tissue PCR test Detects Aspergillus DNA CT scan (not a lab test) Helps identify lung damage from fungus 📊 Interpretation of Results Condition Typical Lab Findings Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) ↑ IgE, ↑ Aspergillus-specific IgE/IgG Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CPA) ↑ Aspergillus IgG, positive culture, lung cavity on CT Invasive Aspergillosis + Galactomannan, PCR, possibly culture; often in ICU or neutropenic patients Aspergilloma (fungus ball) CT scan shows a mass; IgG may be elevated Colonization Positive culture but no signs of active infection 📈 Sample Reference Ranges Test Normal Range Aspergillus IgG < 10–15 mg/L (varies by lab) Aspergillus IgE < 0.35 kU/L (cutoff varies) Galactomannan (serum) < 0.5 index value Positive IgG or IgE results suggest immune sensitization or infection, depending on clinical context. ⚠️ Who Should Be Tested? Patients with: Persistent cough or hemoptysis Asthma with worsening symptoms Bronchiectasis Lung cavities on imaging Weakened immunity (chemotherapy, transplant, HIV/AIDS) Non-resolving pneumonia ✅ Summary Feature Details Organism Aspergillus fumigatus Diseases ABPA, CPA, invasive aspergillosis, aspergilloma Tests IgG, IgE, Galactomannan, PCR, Culture Indications Persistent lung symptoms, immunocompromised status

🧪 AFB Test (Acid-Fast Bacillus Test) The AFB test is used to detect Mycobacterium species, especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) — the bacteria that causes tuberculosis. "Acid-fast bacilli" refers to the unique staining characteristics of these bacteria. ✅ Why Is the AFB Test Done? To diagnose active tuberculosis (TB) or monitor treatment response in patients with: Persistent cough lasting more than 2 weeks Weight loss Fever, night sweats Coughing up blood (hemoptysis) Suspicion of pulmonary or extrapulmonary TB 🔬 Types of AFB Tests Type Sample Purpose AFB Smear (Microscopy) Sputum, pus, body fluid Quick, initial detection AFB Culture Sputum, blood, tissue, fluids Confirms TB and identifies drug resistance (takes weeks) AFB PCR / NAAT Sputum, blood, CSF Rapid genetic test to confirm TB and resistance 📊 Interpretation of Results Result Meaning Positive AFB smear Likely TB infection (or another Mycobacterium); needs culture confirmation Negative smear TB not ruled out — repeat testing or use PCR/culture Positive culture Definitive TB diagnosis Positive PCR (NAAT) Confirms TB DNA; fast and specific 🧪 Sample Requirements Sputum (most common): Early morning, deep cough, 3 consecutive days Other samples: Urine, CSF, lymph node aspirate, gastric lavage, etc. (for extrapulmonary TB) 🧍‍♂️🧍‍♀️ Who Should Get an AFB Test? Anyone with suspected TB symptoms Close contacts of TB patients People with HIV, diabetes, or weakened immunity Healthcare workers or people in high-risk environments 🔁 Often Ordered With: Test Use Chest X-ray To look for TB lesions Tuberculin Skin Test (TST) or IGRA TB exposure screening CBNAAT (GeneXpert) Rapid molecular TB test + rifampicin resistance HIV test TB often co-occurs with HIV ESR, CBC Supportive information on inflammation or infection 📌 Summary Test Detects Use AFB Smear Acid-fast bacilli under microscope Initial screen AFB Culture Grows the organism Gold standard AFB PCR / NAAT DNA of TB bacteria Fast, confirmatory test

: 🧪 Mantoux Test (Tuberculin Skin Test – TST) The Mantoux test is a diagnostic tool used to detect latent or active tuberculosis (TB) infection. It involves intradermal injection of Purified Protein Derivative (PPD) and checking the body’s immune response. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Mantoux Test / Tuberculin Skin Test (TST) Method Intradermal injection of 0.1 mL PPD (5 TU) Injection Site Inner forearm (volar surface) Sample Type No blood sample; intradermal reaction Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Result Time 48 to 72 hours after injection 📊 Result Interpretation After 48–72 hours, the induration (raised, hardened area, not redness) is measured in millimeters: Induration Size Interpretation ✅ ≥5 mm Positive in high-risk individuals (HIV+, recent TB contact, immunosuppressed) ⚠️ ≥10 mm Positive in moderate-risk groups (healthcare workers, recent immigrants, children <5) ❗ ≥15 mm Positive in healthy individuals with no known risk factors 🔻 <5 mm Usually negative, but may require repeat testing in high-risk or immunocompromised cases ⚠️ Limitations False Positives: Prior BCG vaccination Exposure to non-tuberculous mycobacteria False Negatives: Weakened immunity (HIV, steroids, cancer) Very recent TB infection Very young or elderly individuals 🧬 Alternative: IGRA Blood Test The Interferon Gamma Release Assay (IGRA) is a blood test alternative (e.g., QuantiFERON-TB Gold) that: Is not affected by BCG vaccine Requires only one visit Useful in BCG-vaccinated individuals ✅ Summary Test Mantoux Test (TST) Purpose Detect latent or active TB infection Type Skin test with PPD injection Read After 48–72 hours Positive If Induration ≥5–15 mm (based on risk group) Follow-Up Chest X-ray, sputum test, IGRA if needed

🧪 Food Allergy Profile (Vegetarians & Non-Vegetarians) The Food Allergy Profile (Vegetarian + Non-Vegetarian) is a comprehensive blood test that detects IgE-mediated allergic responses to a wide variety of common foods across both vegetarian and non-vegetarian categories. It is useful in diagnosing food allergies that can cause skin rashes, digestive issues, respiratory problems, or even anaphylaxis. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Food Allergy Profile – Vegetarian & Non-Vegetarian Sample Type Blood (serum) Method Immunoassay (e.g. ELISA, ImmunoCAP, CLIA) Fasting Required? ❌ Not necessary Turnaround Time 3–7 days (depending on lab and panel size) Analytes Total IgE + Specific IgE for multiple food allergens 🥦 Common Vegetarian Food Allergens Tested Cereals/Grains: Wheat, Rice, Oats, Corn, Barley Pulses: Soybean, Lentils, Chickpeas, Peanuts Vegetables: Tomato, Potato, Brinjal, Spinach Fruits: Banana, Apple, Mango, Strawberry, Citrus fruits Nuts/Seeds: Almonds, Cashew, Walnut, Sesame, Mustard Spices: Turmeric, Cumin, Clove 🍗 Common Non-Vegetarian Food Allergens Tested Meat: Chicken, Mutton, Beef, Pork Seafood: Prawns, Crab, Lobster, Salmon, Tuna, Sardines Eggs: Egg white, Egg yolk Dairy: Cow milk, Buffalo milk, Casein, Whey 📊 Interpretation of Results IgE Level (kU/L) Class Interpretation < 0.35 Class 0 Negative 0.35–0.70 Class 1 Low sensitivity 0.71–3.50 Class 2 Moderate sensitivity 3.51–17.50 Class 3 High sensitivity > 17.50 Class 4–6 Very high sensitivity (likely clinical) ⚠️ Symptoms of Food Allergies Itching or swelling of mouth/throat Skin rashes, hives, or eczema Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea Wheezing, nasal congestion Anaphylaxis (life-threatening in severe cases) 🧬 Why This Test Is Important Diagnoses hidden causes of chronic allergy symptoms Helps plan an elimination diet Useful in children with eczema, asthma, or food aversions Identifies allergens that may worsen autoimmune or GI conditions ✅ Summary Test Food Allergy Profile (Veg + Non-Veg) Method IgE immunoassay No. of Allergens Varies (typically 30–100+) Best For Suspected food-triggered allergies or intolerance Preparation No fasting required Result Format Specific IgE values + Class rating

🧪 Human Growth Hormone (HGH) Test The Human Growth Hormone (HGH) test measures the amount of growth hormone in your blood. Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and plays a critical role in growth, metabolism, muscle and bone development, and tissue repair. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Human Growth Hormone (HGH), Serum Sample Type Blood (Serum) Method Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (CLIA) / ELISA Fasting Required? ✅ Yes (usually 8–12 hours) Timing Often measured in the morning or during stimulation/suppression tests Turnaround Time 1–3 days Units ng/mL (nanograms per milliliter) 📊 Normal Reference Ranges Group HGH Normal Range (may vary slightly by lab) Men <5 ng/mL Women <10 ng/mL Children 10–50 ng/mL (can be higher during growth spurts) 🧠 Note: HGH levels fluctuate throughout the day, so random measurements can be misleading. Specialized tests (see below) are more reliable for diagnosis. 🧪 Associated Tests (for accurate diagnosis) Test Purpose GH stimulation test Diagnose GH deficiency (e.g., using insulin, arginine) GH suppression test Diagnose GH excess (e.g., acromegaly, gigantism) IGF-1 test (Insulin-like Growth Factor 1) More stable marker reflecting average HGH activity ⚠️ Clinical Uses of HGH Testing ⬇️ Low HGH Levels (Deficiency): Short stature in children Delayed puberty Growth hormone deficiency in adults (fatigue, decreased muscle mass) Pituitary disorders (e.g., tumors, trauma) ⬆️ High HGH Levels (Excess): Acromegaly (in adults): enlarged hands, feet, facial bones Gigantism (in children): abnormal height and growth Pituitary adenomas (GH-secreting tumors) ✅ Summary Test Human Growth Hormone (HGH) – Serum Purpose Diagnose GH deficiency or excess Key Markers HGH + IGF-1 + Stimulation/Suppression tests Sample Type Blood (serum) – often fasting Next Steps If abnormal, do dynamic testing (stim/supp)

🩸 Platelet Count Test (Thrombocyte Count) ✅ What is a Platelet Count Test? A platelet count test measures the number of platelets (thrombocytes) in your blood. Platelets are small cell fragments that help with blood clotting and prevent excessive bleeding when injuries occur. 🔬 Normal Platelet Count Range: Age Group Normal Range Adults 150,000 – 450,000 /µL (or 150–450 × 10⁹/L) Children Slightly higher variation possible Pregnancy May be slightly lower, especially in 3rd trimester 📈 High Platelet Count (Thrombocytosis): Platelet count > 450,000 /µL Possible Causes: Infections Inflammation (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, IBD) Iron deficiency anemia After surgery or trauma Chronic myeloproliferative disorders (e.g., essential thrombocythemia) Cancer Symptoms (if any): Often none, but sometimes: Headaches Dizziness Blood clots (rare) 📉 Low Platelet Count (Thrombocytopenia): Platelet count < 150,000 /µL Possible Causes: Dengue fever, viral infections (e.g., HIV, Hepatitis) Bone marrow disorders Autoimmune diseases (e.g., ITP, lupus) Medications (e.g., chemotherapy, antibiotics, heparin) Alcoholism Sepsis Pregnancy-related conditions Symptoms: Easy bruising Prolonged bleeding Petechiae (small red/purple spots under skin) Gum or nose bleeding 🧪 Why is the Test Done? To evaluate: Unexplained bruising or bleeding Blood disorders (like dengue, leukemia, aplastic anemia) Bone marrow health Response to treatments (e.g., chemotherapy, platelet transfusion) As part of a Complete Blood Count (CBC) 🧍‍♂️🧍‍♀️ Test Details: Sample: Blood (venipuncture) Fasting: Not required Results: Usually available within a few hours 📝 Summary: Platelet Count (/µL) Interpretation < 150,000 Low (Thrombocytopenia) – Risk of bleeding 150,000–450,000 Normal > 450,000 High (Thrombocytosis) – Risk of clotting

🧪 Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) Antigen – Stool Test The H. pylori stool antigen test detects the presence of H. pylori bacteria in a stool sample. It is a non-invasive, highly accurate test used for initial diagnosis and post-treatment confirmation of H. pylori infection — a common cause of gastritis, peptic ulcers, and sometimes stomach cancer. 🧬 What is H. pylori? A spiral-shaped bacterium that infects the stomach lining. Often acquired in childhood. Can cause: Gastritis Peptic ulcers Gastric cancer (rare, long-term complication) Dyspepsia (indigestion) 📊 Reference Range Test Result Interpretation Negative No H. pylori antigen detected (normal) Positive H. pylori infection present Equivocal Borderline result; may require repeat test 🧾 Example Lab Report Test Result Reference Range H. pylori Stool Antigen Positive Negative Interpretation Infection present – needs treatment 🧪 Test Use Cases Purpose Description Diagnosis Detect active H. pylori infection Post-treatment testing Confirm eradication 4+ weeks after therapy Screening In patients with ulcer symptoms or family history 📋 Before the Test To avoid false-negative results, follow these guidelines: Medication Stop Before Test Antibiotics ≥ 4 weeks PPIs (e.g., omeprazole) ≥ 2 weeks Bismuth compounds ≥ 4 weeks 💊 If Positive – Treatment (Triple Therapy) A typical 14-day regimen may include: PPI (e.g., omeprazole or pantoprazole) Amoxicillin Clarithromycin Alternatives exist if resistant strains or allergies are present. ✅ Summary Feature Detail Test H. pylori stool antigen Sample Stool Result: Positive Active infection – treat accordingly Result: Negative No current infection Best for Initial diagnosis and post-treatment follow-up Avoid false results Discontinue PPIs & antibiotics beforehand

💊 Vitamin B Complex Profile Test The Vitamin B Complex Profile measures the levels of multiple B vitamins in your body — a group of essential water-soluble vitamins that play key roles in energy metabolism, nervous system function, red blood cell production, and DNA synthesis. 🧪 What’s Included in a Typical B Complex Profile? Vitamin Also Known As Key Function B1 Thiamine Nerve function, carbohydrate metabolism B2 Riboflavin Energy production, skin and eye health B3 Niacin Energy metabolism, DNA repair B5 Pantothenic Acid Fatty acid metabolism, hormone synthesis B6 Pyridoxal Phosphate Neurotransmitter synthesis, amino acid metabolism B7 Biotin Hair, skin, nails; carb/fat/protein metabolism B9 Folate (Folic Acid) DNA synthesis, pregnancy support, red blood cell formation B12 Cobalamin Nerve function, red blood cells, DNA synthesis Some labs may test only key vitamins like B1, B2, B6, B9, and B12 unless specifically requested. 📊 Reference Ranges (May Vary by Lab) Vitamin Normal Range (Common Units) B1 (Thiamine) 70 – 180 nmol/L (whole blood) B2 (Riboflavin) 5 – 50 µg/L (plasma) B3 (Niacin) 0.5 – 8.5 µg/mL (blood or urine) B5 (Pantothenic Acid) 1.6 – 2.7 µmol/L B6 (Pyridoxal Phosphate) 5 – 30 µg/L B7 (Biotin) 200 – 1200 ng/L B9 (Folate) > 4 ng/mL (serum) or > 140 ng/mL (RBC) B12 (Cobalamin) 200 – 900 pg/mL 🔍 Why This Test Is Ordered Reason Explanation 🧠 Neuropathy, fatigue, confusion Suspect B1, B6, or B12 deficiency 👩‍🍼 Pregnancy monitoring Folate (B9) and B12 are critical for fetal health 🍺 Alcohol use disorder Risk of B vitamin deficiencies 🥗 Vegan/vegetarian diet Risk of low B12 intake 💉 Malabsorption disorders Crohn’s, celiac, bariatric surgery 💊 Medication effects Metformin, PPIs, isoniazid may deplete B vitamins ⚠️ Symptoms of B Vitamin Deficiency B Vitamin Deficiency Symptoms B1 Fatigue, nerve pain, confusion, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome B2 Cracks at mouth corners, sore throat, red eyes B3 Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia) B5 Fatigue, mood disturbances (rare) B6 Irritability, depression, neuropathy B7 Hair thinning, brittle nails, skin rash B9 Anemia, birth defects, poor concentration B12 Anemia, memory loss, numbness/tingling, glossitis 🩺 How Is the Test Done? Parameter Details Sample Blood (serum/plasma or whole blood) Fasting? Yes, fasting preferred (8–10 hours) Processing Time 1–5 days depending on lab 🧾 Sample Test Report (Summary) Vitamin Result Reference Range Status B1 60 nmol/L 70–180 nmol/L Deficient B2 12 µg/L 5–50 µg/L Normal B6 8.3 µg/L 5–30 µg/L Normal B9 3.2 ng/mL >4 ng/mL Low B12 154 pg/mL 200–900 pg/mL Low 🟥 Interpretation: B1, B9, and B12 deficiencies — commonly seen in alcohol-related malnutrition or vegetarian diets. ✅ Summary Feature Detail Test Name Vitamin B Complex Profile Includes B1 through B12 (most or all B vitamins) Use Diagnose deficiency or toxicity Fasting Needed Preferred Toxicity Risk Low (excess excreted in urine, except B6 in very high doses)

💊 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Test The Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Test measures levels of riboflavin in your body — a water-soluble B vitamin essential for energy production, cellular metabolism, red blood cell function, and maintaining healthy skin, eyes, and nerves. 🧬 Why Is This Test Done? Clinical Use Purpose 🧴 Skin or mouth issues Cracks at mouth corners, sore tongue, or dry skin 👀 Eye fatigue, sensitivity to light Riboflavin supports eye health 🍽️ Malnutrition/malabsorption To assess nutrient status in GI disorders 🍺 Alcoholism Riboflavin often depleted 🧪 Evaluate overall B-vitamin status Combined with other B vitamins (B1, B6, etc.) 👶 Infants with feeding issues Especially in rare inborn errors of metabolism 🧪 Sample Type & Procedure Specimen: Blood (usually plasma or urine for functional tests) Fasting: Preferred but not always required Method: Direct measurement or functional assay like EGRAC (Erythrocyte Glutathione Reductase Activity Coefficient) 📊 Reference Range Measurement Type Normal Range Plasma riboflavin 5 – 50 µg/L EGRAC (functional test) ≤ 1.2 = Adequate 1.2–1.4 = Marginal >1.4 = Deficient 🔬 The EGRAC test is more sensitive in detecting early or functional deficiency. ⚠️ Symptoms of Riboflavin Deficiency Symptom Description Angular stomatitis Cracks at the corners of the mouth Glossitis Smooth, magenta-colored tongue Cheilitis Dry, cracked lips Photophobia Sensitivity to light Itchy, watery eyes Riboflavin helps maintain eye health Fatigue or weakness Due to impaired energy metabolism 🥗 Dietary Sources of Vitamin B2 Food Source Richness Dairy (milk, yogurt, cheese) ✅ Excellent Eggs ✅ Excellent Liver and kidney ✅ Very high Lean meats and fish 👍 Good Green leafy vegetables 👍 Moderate Fortified cereals/breads ✅ Common source ⚠️ Riboflavin is light-sensitive — destroyed by UV exposure, especially in clear bottles (e.g. milk left in sunlight). ⚠️ Risk Factors for Deficiency Alcoholism Chronic diarrhea or malabsorption (celiac, Crohn’s) Pregnancy or lactation Vegan diets without fortified foods Phototherapy in infants (increases riboflavin demand) ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Name Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Sample Plasma or urine (or EGRAC functional test) Normal Range 5 – 50 µg/L (plasma) Deficiency Symptoms Cracked lips, sore tongue, eye irritation, fatigue Toxicity Risk Very low (excess excreted in urine)

💩 Stool Occult Blood Test (FOBT – Fecal Occult Blood Test) The Stool Occult Blood Test detects hidden (occult) blood in your stool — blood that is not visible to the naked eye. It’s a screening tool primarily used to check for: Colorectal cancer Polyps Gastrointestinal bleeding (from ulcers, gastritis, IBD, etc.) 🔬 Types of Occult Blood Tests Type Description Guaiac-based FOBT (gFOBT) Detects heme in hemoglobin (may react to red meat or some vegetables) Fecal Immunochemical Test (FIT) More specific to human blood, fewer dietary restrictions 📊 Reference Range Result Interpretation Negative No occult blood detected – Normal Positive Blood detected – Requires further evaluation 🧾 Example Lab Report Test Result Reference Range Stool Occult Blood Positive Negative Interpretation Blood in stool – Investigate further 🔍 Causes of a Positive Test Cause Description Hemorrhoids Benign bleeding from rectal veins Anal fissures Small tears in the anus Colorectal polyps Can bleed and may become cancerous Colorectal cancer Often causes occult bleeding Peptic ulcers or gastritis Stomach bleeding Inflammatory bowel disease Ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s ⚠️ Before the Test (for gFOBT) Avoid these 3 days before the test to prevent false positives/negatives: Avoid Reason Red meat, liver Contains animal hemoglobin Aspirin, NSAIDs Can cause gut irritation/bleeding Vitamin C > 250 mg/day May interfere with test reaction Raw fruits/vegetables (turnips, horseradish) Can affect test chemistry ✅ No dietary restrictions are needed for the FIT test. 🧠 What to Do if Positive? Follow up with: Colonoscopy (most common next step) Upper GI endoscopy (if upper GI bleeding suspected) Repeat testing, if advised ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Stool Occult Blood (FOBT) Purpose Detect hidden GI bleeding Normal Result Negative Positive Result May indicate GI bleeding – investigate further Used For Colorectal cancer screening, anemia workup

💩 Stool Complete Analysis (Stool Routine Examination) A Complete Stool Analysis (also called Stool Routine & Microscopy or Stool R/M) evaluates multiple parameters in a stool sample to help diagnose digestive disorders, infections, malabsorption, and intestinal bleeding. 🧪 Components of Stool Complete Analysis 1. Macroscopic Examination Parameter What It Shows Normal Value Color Reflects diet, bile content, bleeding Brown Consistency Diarrhea, constipation, steatorrhea Formed / semi-formed Mucus Inflammation, IBD, infection Absent Blood Bleeding, hemorrhoids, polyps Absent Pus Bacterial infection, IBD Absent Undigested food Malabsorption Absent / rare Parasites (visible) Tapeworm segments, roundworms None visible 2. Microscopic Examination Parameter What It Detects Normal Value RBCs (Red Blood Cells) Bleeding (ulcers, infections, polyps) None WBCs (Pus cells) Inflammation, infection 0–2 / high power field (HPF) Ova & Parasites Worm infections (e.g., Giardia, Ascaris) Not seen Cysts & Trophozoites Protozoal infections (e.g., Entamoeba) Not seen Yeast/Fungi Fungal overgrowth, immunocompromised state Not seen Fat globules Malabsorption (steatorrhea) Absent or rare Starch granules Incomplete digestion Absent or rare Vegetable cells Undigested fiber (generally benign) May be seen 3. Chemical Tests Parameter Use Normal pH Acidic in carb. malabsorption 6.5–7.5 Reducing substances Carbohydrate malabsorption Negative Occult blood Hidden GI bleeding Negative 🧾 Example Report (Summary) Test Component Result Normal Range Color Brown Brown Consistency Formed Formed Mucus Absent Absent Blood Absent Absent RBCs None seen None Pus cells 2–3 / HPF 0–2 / HPF Ova & Parasites Not seen Not seen Fat globules Not seen Absent pH 6.8 6.5–7.5 Reducing substances Negative Negative 🧠 Clinical Use Cases Diarrhea evaluation (infectious or malabsorption) Suspected parasitic infections GI bleeding (RBCs, occult blood) IBD (Crohn’s, Ulcerative colitis) Food intolerances or pancreatic insufficiency ✅ Summary Category What It Tells You Macroscopy Physical characteristics Microscopy Blood, pus, parasites, fat, yeast Chemical pH, reducing substances, occult blood Used for Diarrhea, infections, GI bleeding, malabsorption

💊 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal Phosphate) Test The Vitamin B6 test measures the level of pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP), the active form of Vitamin B6, in the blood. This vitamin is essential for protein metabolism, nervous system function, and the production of neurotransmitters. 🧬 Why Is This Test Done? Use Case Purpose Neurological symptoms To investigate unexplained neuropathy, seizures Malnutrition or malabsorption Check deficiency due to GI disorders Alcoholism or liver disease Monitor levels, as B6 is often depleted Certain medications Some drugs (e.g., isoniazid, hydralazine) can reduce B6 Suspected excess intake Rule out toxicity from supplements 📊 Normal Reference Range Level (Plasma Pyridoxal 5′-phosphate) Interpretation < 5.0 µg/L Deficient 5.0 – 30.0 µg/L Normal range > 100 µg/L Potential toxicity Values can vary slightly depending on the lab. Always interpret with clinical context. 🩺 Symptoms of B6 Deficiency Irritability, depression, or confusion Peripheral neuropathy (numbness/tingling in hands/feet) Glossitis (inflamed tongue) Fatigue or weakness Seizures (in severe cases) Weakened immune function 💊 Symptoms of B6 Toxicity (Excess) Sensory neuropathy (tingling, pain, difficulty walking) Photosensitivity Nausea Toxicity typically occurs with supplement doses > 100 mg/day over time. 🧾 Sample Report Example Test Result Reference Range Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal Phosphate) 8.5 µg/L 5.0 – 30.0 µg/L (Normal) 🧠 Conditions That May Affect B6 Levels Low B6 Levels May Be Due To: High B6 Levels May Be Due To: Alcoholism Supplement overuse Chronic kidney disease Liver dysfunction Malabsorption (celiac, Crohn’s) Megavitamin therapy Certain medications (INH, penicillamine) 🧪 Test Details Parameter Detail Sample Blood (plasma or serum) Fasting? Yes (usually recommended) Time to Result 2–5 days in most labs ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Name Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal 5′-phosphate) Purpose Assess deficiency or toxicity Normal Range 5.0 – 30.0 µg/L Low Level Symptoms Neuropathy, irritability, seizures High Level Symptoms Sensory nerve damage

🧪 Allergy Component Resolved Diagnostics (CRD) Panel Component Resolved Diagnostics (CRD) is an advanced allergy testing method that identifies specific protein components of allergens your immune system reacts to—not just the source (like peanut or pollen), but the exact molecular components involved. This helps distinguish between true allergies, cross-reactivity, and risk of severe reactions. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Allergy Component Resolved Diagnostics (CRD) Panel Sample Type Blood (serum) Method ImmunoCAP ISAC, ALEX², or multiplex microarray Fasting Required ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 7–10 working days Technology Recombinant and purified natural allergen proteins No. of Components 100–300+ allergen components (varies by lab) 🧬 What CRD Detects CRD tests for IgE antibodies against individual allergenic molecules from sources like: 🍳 Food Allergens Allergen Source Major Components Notes Peanut Ara h 1, 2, 3, 8, 9 Ara h 2: linked to severe reactions Egg Gal d 1 (ovomucoid) Heat-stable, severe allergy marker Milk Bos d 8 (casein) Casein linked to persistent allergy Wheat Tri a 19 (omega-5 gliadin) Marker for wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis 🌲 Pollen Allergens Pollen Type Components Cross-Reactivity Birch Bet v 1 Cross-reacts with apple, hazelnut (oral allergy) Grass Phl p 1, 5, 7 Phl p 1/5: primary sensitizers Ragweed Amb a 1 True sensitizer 🐱 Animal Dander Source Components Use Cat Fel d 1 Major cat allergen Dog Can f 1, 2, 5 Identify true allergy vs cross-sensitization 🌰 Tree Nuts & Seeds Nut/Seed Components Severity Link Hazelnut Cor a 1, 8, 9, 14 Cor a 14: linked to severe reactions Walnut Jug r 1, 2 Jug r 2: stable, may cause anaphylaxis Sesame Ses i 1, 2 Helps distinguish true allergy 📊 Result Interpretation IgE Level (ISAC Standardized Units) Class Interpretation <0.3 ISU 0 Negative 0.3–0.9 ISU 1 Low sensitization 1–15 ISU 2–4 Moderate to high sensitization >15 ISU 5 Strong sensitization Interpretation focuses on clinical relevance of the specific component rather than just presence of IgE. ⚠️ Why Choose CRD? Use Case Benefit of CRD Distinguishing true allergy vs cross-reactivity Avoid unnecessary dietary restrictions Assessing risk of anaphylaxis Identify markers like Ara h 2, Cor a 14, Gal d 1 Managing polysensitized patients Pinpoint clinically relevant allergens Deciding on immunotherapy Helps tailor desensitization treatments Diagnosing complex allergy symptoms Multi-allergen and molecular insight ✅ Summary Test Allergy CRD Panel (Component Resolved Diagnostics) Purpose Precise molecular-level allergy profiling Sample Type Serum (blood) Best For Food, inhalant, and animal allergies Technology Microarray/ISAC/ALEX² Results Include Specific IgE to 100–300 allergen components Clinical Use Distinguish risk, guide treatment, reduce misdiagnosis

🌞 Vitamin D Gold Test (Vitamin D2, D3 & Total Vitamin D) The Vitamin D Gold Test measures: Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) – from plant sources/supplements Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) – from sunlight exposure & animal sources Total Vitamin D – sum of D2 and D3, reported as 25(OH)D (25-hydroxyvitamin D) This test gives a comprehensive view of your Vitamin D status, which is essential for bone health, immunity, and hormone regulation. 🧪 Why Is This Test Done? Reason Description 🦴 Bone problems Rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis 🩺 Fatigue, muscle pain, weakness Common signs of deficiency 🌧️ Lack of sun exposure Limited synthesis of D3 🍽️ Malabsorption Celiac, Crohn’s, bariatric surgery 🧬 Monitoring therapy Patients on Vitamin D supplements 🧠 Autoimmune/thyroid disorders Vitamin D plays a role in immune modulation 📊 Reference Ranges (Total 25(OH)D) Level (ng/mL) Interpretation < 10 Severe deficiency 10–20 Deficiency 20–30 Insufficient 30–100 Optimal >100 Possible toxicity (needs review) ✅ Most labs consider 30–100 ng/mL as the normal range. 📋 Example Test Report Parameter Result (ng/mL) Normal Range Vitamin D2 3.2 0 – 10 ng/mL (varies) Vitamin D3 28.5 20 – 70 ng/mL Vitamin D Total 31.7 30 – 100 ng/mL 🟢 Interpretation: Normal total Vitamin D; D3 is the dominant form, as expected. 🧠 Symptoms of Deficiency Fatigue, muscle weakness, bone pain Frequent infections or slow wound healing Mood changes (e.g., depression) Osteomalacia or rickets in severe cases 🍽️ Sources of Vitamin D Source Type Sunlight (UVB exposure) Vitamin D3 Fatty fish (salmon, tuna) D3 Egg yolks, liver D3 Fortified dairy, cereals D2/D3 Supplements D2 or D3 💊 D3 supplements are generally more effective at raising blood levels. ⚠️ Vitamin D Toxicity (Usually from Supplements) Symptoms When Levels > 100–150 ng/mL Nausea, vomiting ✅ Kidney stones or failure ✅ High calcium (hypercalcemia) ✅ Confusion or arrhythmia ✅ ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Name Vitamin D Gold (D2, D3, Total 25(OH)D) Purpose Assess vitamin D status Ideal Range 30–100 ng/mL (Total) Deficiency < 20 ng/mL Main Source D3 from sunlight and animal foods Toxicity Risk Usually from excess supplement use

🧪 Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Test The Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) test measures the level of DHT, a potent androgen hormone derived from testosterone. DHT plays a key role in male sexual development, hair growth, prostate function, and skin health. Abnormal levels can be associated with conditions like androgenetic alopecia (male/female pattern baldness), hirsutism, PCOS, and prostate disorders. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Sample Type Blood (serum or plasma) Method LC-MS/MS (Liquid Chromatography – Tandem Mass Spectrometry) – most accurate Fasting Required? ✅ Yes, 8–12 hours fasting recommended Turnaround Time 3–5 days (varies by lab) Units ng/dL or pg/mL 📊 Normal Reference Ranges (Values may vary slightly by lab and age) Group Normal DHT Level Adult males 30–85 ng/dL (or 300–850 pg/mL) Adult females 4–22 ng/dL (or 40–220 pg/mL) 🧬 Why Is the DHT Test Done? In Males: Evaluate androgenic alopecia (male pattern baldness) Investigate prostate hypertrophy (BPH) or prostate cancer Diagnose delayed puberty or infertility Monitor testosterone replacement therapy In Females: Diagnose hirsutism or virilization Evaluate PCOS or other androgen excess conditions Assess adrenal or ovarian tumors ⚠️ Abnormal DHT Levels: Possible Causes 🔺 High DHT Levels: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Androgenic alopecia (baldness) Hirsutism or virilization (in women) PCOS 5-alpha-reductase overactivity Adrenal or gonadal tumors 🔻 Low DHT Levels: 5-alpha-reductase deficiency (genetic disorder) Hypogonadism Use of 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors (e.g., finasteride, dutasteride) Klinefelter syndrome Testicular failure 💊 Common Medications Affecting DHT Drug Class Effect on DHT 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors ⬇ Decrease DHT (used for BPH, hair loss) Testosterone therapy ⬆ May increase DHT Anti-androgens ⬇ Decrease DHT ✅ Summary Test Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Used For Androgen disorders, hair loss, PCOS, prostate issues Sample Blood (serum/plasma), fasting recommended Normal Range Men: 30–85 ng/dL, Women: 4–22 ng/dL Complementary Tests Testosterone, LH, FSH, SHBG, 5-alpha-reductase activity

🧪 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Test The ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) test measures the level of ACTH in your blood. It is a key diagnostic tool to evaluate how well your pituitary gland and adrenal glands are functioning, especially in relation to cortisol production. 🧬 What Is ACTH? ACTH is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland. It stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, a vital stress hormone involved in metabolism, immune response, and blood pressure regulation. The release of ACTH follows a diurnal rhythm, peaking in the early morning and falling throughout the day. 🧪 Test Purpose The ACTH test is used to help diagnose: Condition Role of ACTH Test Cushing’s syndrome Detect cause of high cortisol Addison’s disease Detect cause of low cortisol Secondary adrenal insufficiency Determine if pituitary is under-producing ACTH Ectopic ACTH production Identify non-pituitary sources of ACTH (e.g., tumors) 📊 Normal Reference Range Time of Day ACTH (pg/mL) Normal Range Morning (8 a.m.) 10 – 60 pg/mL Afternoon Lower than morning values 🔍 Note: Reference ranges can vary slightly depending on the lab and method used. 🧾 Example Results & Interpretation Test Result Normal Range Interpretation ACTH 120 pg/mL 10 – 60 pg/mL Elevated — Possible Cushing’s disease, ectopic ACTH, or Addison’s disease ACTH 5 pg/mL 10 – 60 pg/mL Low — Possible adrenal tumor (Cushing’s syndrome) or secondary adrenal insufficiency 🔬 Interpretation Based on Cortisol Levels ACTH Level Cortisol Level Possible Diagnosis High High Cushing’s disease or ectopic ACTH High Low Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's) Low High Adrenal tumor or exogenous steroids Low Low Secondary/tertiary adrenal insufficiency 🕒 Test Preparation Tips Sample usually taken early in the morning (between 7–9 a.m.). May require fasting. Avoid stress and vigorous activity before the test. Certain medications (like steroids, estrogen, or amphetamines) can affect results. ✅ Summary Feature Description Hormone ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) Produced by Pituitary gland Stimulates Adrenal cortex to produce cortisol Use Diagnose adrenal or pituitary disorders Normal Range (AM) ~10–60 pg/mL High ACTH Cushing’s disease, Addison’s disease Low ACTH Secondary adrenal insufficiency, adrenal tumor

🧪 Erythropoietin (EPO) Test The Erythropoietin (EPO) test measures the level of erythropoietin, a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys, which stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells (RBCs). It plays a critical role in maintaining oxygen-carrying capacity in the blood. 🔍 Why Is the EPO Test Done? Purpose Use Case/Indication 🩸 Evaluate cause of anemia To determine if anemia is due to low EPO levels 📈 Polycythemia (high RBC count) To assess if excess RBCs are from high EPO levels 🔬 Monitor kidney function Since kidneys regulate EPO 💊 Check EPO therapy response For patients on synthetic EPO 🧪 Detect EPO-producing tumors e.g., renal cell carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma 📊 Normal Reference Range Sample Type Normal Range Blood (serum) 4 – 26 mIU/mL (may vary slightly by lab) 🧾 Values must be interpreted alongside hemoglobin/hematocrit levels. ⚠️ High EPO Levels – Possible Causes Condition Description ✅ Appropriate response to anemia In iron deficiency, hemolysis, or blood loss 🏔️ Chronic hypoxia From high altitudes, COPD, or heart failure 🦠 Tumors producing EPO Kidney, liver, uterine fibroids (rare) ⚡ Polycythemia due to hypoxia Secondary polycythemia ⚠️ Low EPO Levels – Possible Causes Condition Description 🚫 Chronic kidney disease (CKD) Impaired EPO production — common in CKD anemia 🧬 Primary polycythemia (e.g., Polycythemia Vera) Bone marrow overproduces RBCs without EPO 🧠 Pituitary or hypothalamic disorders Can indirectly suppress EPO 📉 Iron overload or inflammation May blunt EPO response 🧾 Sample Interpretation Test Result Reference Range Interpretation Erythropoietin 3.2 mIU/mL 4 – 26 mIU/mL 🔻 Low – consider CKD or marrow disorder Hemoglobin 9.5 g/dL 12–16 g/dL Anemia eGFR 40 mL/min > 90 mL/min Impaired kidney function 🧬 Conclusion: Anemia with low EPO and reduced eGFR suggests renal anemia. 🧫 Sample Collection & Notes Sample: Serum (blood) Fasting: Not required Avoid hemolysis in sample (can interfere with results) Turnaround time: 1–3 days typically ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Name Erythropoietin (EPO) Sample Serum (blood) Normal Range 4 – 26 mIU/mL High EPO Anemia, hypoxia, tumors Low EPO Kidney disease, polycythemia vera Main Use To evaluate anemia or high RBC causes

💩 Stool pH & Reducing Substances Test These two stool tests are commonly used together, especially in infants and young children, to evaluate carbohydrate malabsorption, lactose intolerance, or chronic diarrhea. 🧪 1. Stool pH ➤ Purpose: Assesses the acidity or alkalinity of stool, which reflects digestion and absorption processes. 📊 Normal Range: Stool pH Value Interpretation > 6.0 – 7.5 Normal < 5.5 Acidic stool → Suggests carbohydrate malabsorption (e.g., lactose, fructose) 🔍 Causes of Low Stool pH: Lactose intolerance Viral gastroenteritis (e.g., rotavirus) Short bowel syndrome Celiac disease Sugar malabsorption (e.g., glucose-galactose) 🧪 2. Reducing Substances in Stool ➤ Purpose: Detects unabsorbed sugars (like glucose, lactose, fructose, galactose) that are fermented by gut bacteria, often causing diarrhea. 📊 Normal Range: Reducing Substances Interpretation Negative / < 0.25% Normal – no sugar malabsorption Positive / ≥ 0.5% Indicates presence of unabsorbed sugars ⚠️ Positive result is most commonly seen in lactose intolerance or disaccharidase deficiencies. 🧾 Example Lab Report Test Result Reference Range Stool pH 5.0 6.0 – 7.5 Reducing Substances 1.0% (Positive) < 0.25% (Negative) ✅ Interpretation: Suggestive of carbohydrate malabsorption — likely lactose intolerance or a viral-induced enzyme deficiency in the intestine. 👶 Common Use Cases Persistent diarrhea in infants/children Suspected lactose intolerance Congenital enzyme deficiencies Celiac disease or short gut syndrome Post-infectious diarrhea (e.g., rotavirus) ✅ Summary Test What It Tells You Stool pH < 5.5 Acidic — likely carbohydrate malabsorption Reducing substances + Unabsorbed sugars in stool Used for Diagnosing malabsorption, especially in kids

💩 Stool Hanging Drop Test The Stool Hanging Drop Test is a microscopic technique used primarily to detect the motility of live protozoa, especially in cases of acute diarrheal illness. 🔬 Purpose of the Test The main aim is to observe live motile protozoa (especially Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, etc.) under the microscope in fresh, unfixed stool. 🧪 When is it Done? Use Case Purpose Acute diarrhea/dysentery Detect motile trophozoites (e.g., E. histolytica) Suspected protozoal infections Confirm presence of live organisms Food poisoning or GI outbreaks Rapid identification of causative agents 🧬 Procedure (Simplified) Fresh stool sample is collected (within 30–60 minutes of passage). A small drop is placed on a glass slide. Covered with a cover slip. Observed under high-power microscope in wet mount form. Technician looks for motility patterns of protozoa. 📋 What the Test Detects Organism Appearance in Hanging Drop Entamoeba histolytica Actively motile with directional movement Giardia lamblia "Falling leaf" motility Balantidium coli Fast rotary motion (ciliated) Trichomonas hominis Jerky, twitching motion Trophozoites die quickly outside the body, so fresh sample is critical. 🧾 Result Interpretation Result Meaning Positive Motile protozoa detected → Active infection Negative No motile protozoa seen → May need repeat test or other diagnostic methods 🔄 Follow-up Tests Stool routine & microscopy Stool antigen tests PCR or culture (in complex or chronic cases) Serology (for E. histolytica in liver abscess) ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Name Stool Hanging Drop Test Sample Fresh, unfixed stool Purpose Detect live motile protozoa (e.g., E. histolytica) Result (Positive) Indicates active protozoal infection Limitation Time-sensitive, low sensitivity if delayed

🧪 Influenza Virus Panel (Influenza A & B) The Influenza Virus Panel tests for Influenza A and Influenza B, the two main types of flu viruses that cause seasonal flu outbreaks. It helps diagnose active influenza infection so that timely antiviral treatment and isolation can be started. 🔬 What Does the Test Detect? Virus Type Details Influenza A More common and usually causes more severe illness and pandemics Influenza B Usually causes milder outbreaks; still can lead to serious illness Most tests do not differentiate subtypes (like H1N1 or H3N2) unless specified. 🧪 Types of Tests Used in Panel Test Type Description Turnaround 🧫 RT-PCR (most accurate) Detects viral RNA – high sensitivity and specificity 1–24 hours 🧪 Rapid Antigen Test Quick results (detects viral proteins), less sensitive 15–30 minutes 🧬 Molecular Panel May include RSV, COVID-19, adenovirus, etc. if multiplexed Varies 🧾 Sample Type Preferred Sample: Nasopharyngeal swab (deep nose/throat) Can also use: Throat swab, nasal aspirate, or sputum (in some cases) 📊 Possible Test Results Result Interpretation 🟢 Negative for both No Influenza A or B detected (if symptoms, may be another virus) 🟡 Positive for A only Active Influenza A infection 🔵 Positive for B only Active Influenza B infection 🔴 Positive for both Co-infection with A & B (rare but possible) 🤒 Symptoms of Influenza Sudden high fever Dry cough Sore throat Fatigue Body aches Chills Nasal congestion 💊 What If the Test Is Positive? Action Details 🛏️ Rest & fluids Supportive care is key 💊 Antiviral medication Oseltamivir (Tamiflu), Zanamivir if within 48 hrs 🚫 Avoid antibiotics Not effective unless secondary bacterial infection is suspected 🧍‍♂️ Isolation To prevent spreading the virus ✅ Summary Feature Detail Test Name Influenza Virus Panel (A & B) Purpose Detect current infection with Influenza A or B Sample Type Nasopharyngeal swab or similar Common Methods RT-PCR, rapid antigen test Turnaround Time Rapid test: 30 mins, PCR: 1–24 hrs

🧪 HDL Cholesterol (High-Density Lipoprotein) HDL cholesterol, often called "good cholesterol," helps remove excess cholesterol from your bloodstream and protects against heart disease. Higher levels of HDL are generally protective, while low HDL increases the risk of cardiovascular issues. 📊 Normal HDL Cholesterol Levels Category Men Women 🔴 Low (High risk) < 40 mg/dL < 50 mg/dL ⚠️ Borderline 40–59 mg/dL 50–59 mg/dL ✅ Protective (Ideal) ≥ 60 mg/dL ≥ 60 mg/dL 🧬 The higher your HDL, the lower your cardiovascular risk. 🩺 Why HDL Is Important HDL Benefit Explanation 💪 Removes excess cholesterol Transports LDL ("bad" cholesterol) to the liver 🛡️ Anti-inflammatory properties Helps reduce plaque formation ⚖️ Improves overall lipid balance Part of the total cholesterol calculation 🔬 Marker of cardiovascular health Low HDL is linked to higher heart attack and stroke risk 🧾 Example Report Interpretation Test Result Reference Range Interpretation HDL Cholesterol 38 mg/dL > 40 mg/dL (men) 🔻 Low – increased risk Total Cholesterol 185 mg/dL < 200 mg/dL Normal LDL Cholesterol 110 mg/dL < 100 mg/dL (optimal) Slightly elevated Triglycerides 130 mg/dL < 150 mg/dL Normal 🥗 How to Increase HDL Naturally Strategy Effectiveness 🚶‍♂️ Regular aerobic exercise Boosts HDL 🥑 Healthy fats (e.g., olive oil, nuts) Increases HDL 🚭 Quit smoking Raises HDL ⚖️ Lose excess weight Improves HDL 🍷 Moderate alcohol (if allowed) May increase HDL slightly (consult doctor) ❌ Avoid trans fats Helps HDL levels ❗ Note HDL is only one part of the cholesterol picture. Always interpret it alongside LDL, triglycerides, and total cholesterol. Very high HDL (>90 mg/dL) may not always be beneficial — sometimes linked to dysfunctional HDL or other conditions (under research). ✅ Summary Feature Details Test Name HDL Cholesterol Ideal Range ≥ 60 mg/dL Low Risk Level < 40 mg/dL (men), < 50 mg/dL (women) Sample Type Blood (serum), fasting preferred Main Use Cardiovascular risk assessment

🧪 LDL Cholesterol (Low-Density Lipoprotein) LDL cholesterol is known as the "bad cholesterol" because high levels can lead to plaque buildup in arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. LDL carries cholesterol to tissues, but too much in the blood can be harmful. 📊 LDL Cholesterol – Reference Ranges LDL Level Category ✅ < 100 mg/dL Optimal ⚠️ 100–129 mg/dL Near optimal/above optimal ❗ 130–159 mg/dL Borderline high 🔺 160–189 mg/dL High 🚨 ≥ 190 mg/dL Very high – aggressive treatment needed These goals can be lower for people with diabetes, heart disease, or high risk (e.g., <70 mg/dL). 🩺 Why LDL Matters Issue Explanation 🧱 Arterial plaque formation Leads to atherosclerosis 💔 Heart attack/stroke risk High LDL is a major independent risk factor ⚖️ Affects total cholesterol Makes up the largest part of total cholesterol 🧬 Used in ASCVD risk score For cardiovascular risk prediction 🧾 Example Lipid Panel Interpretation Test Result Reference Range Interpretation LDL Cholesterol 165 mg/dL < 100 mg/dL (optimal) 🔺 High – requires intervention Total Cholesterol 230 mg/dL < 200 mg/dL Borderline high HDL Cholesterol 42 mg/dL > 40 mg/dL (men) Normal Triglycerides 160 mg/dL < 150 mg/dL Slightly elevated 💊 How to Lower LDL Cholesterol Lifestyle/Diet Change Effect on LDL 🥦 More soluble fiber (oats, beans) ⬇️ Reduces LDL 🥑 Healthy fats (olive oil, avocados) ⬇️ Replace saturated/trans fats 🚶‍♂️ Exercise regularly ⬇️ Raises HDL, lowers LDL ❌ Avoid trans fats & processed foods ⬇️ Major reduction 💊 Statins / Ezetimibe / PCSK9 inhibitors ⬇️ Medical treatment for high LDL 🔬 Special LDL Targets Based on Risk Risk Group LDL Target Healthy individual < 100 mg/dL Known heart disease or diabetes < 70 mg/dL Very high risk (recent heart attack, etc.) < 55 mg/dL ✅ Summary Feature Detail Test Name LDL Cholesterol Ideal Range < 100 mg/dL Sample Type Blood (fasting preferred) Use Assess heart disease risk High LDL Means Greater risk of atherosclerosis

🧪 Anti-TPO Antibodies (Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase Antibodies) The Anti-TPO antibody test measures antibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPO) — an enzyme crucial for producing thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). These antibodies indicate an autoimmune attack on the thyroid and are key markers for thyroid autoimmune diseases. 🧬 What Are Anti-TPO Antibodies? Thyroid peroxidase (TPO) is an enzyme in the thyroid gland that helps make thyroid hormones. Anti-TPO antibodies form when the immune system mistakenly targets TPO, disrupting hormone production. 📊 Normal Reference Range (May vary slightly between labs) Test Normal Range Anti-TPO Ab < 35 IU/mL (or) Negative ⚠️ High Anti-TPO Antibody Levels – What It Means Condition Notes Hashimoto’s thyroiditis Most common cause of hypothyroidism Graves’ disease Can also be elevated (hyperthyroidism) Postpartum thyroiditis Can predict risk in at-risk women Autoimmune thyroiditis (general) Marker of immune activity against thyroid ✅ Up to 90–95% of Hashimoto’s and 70–80% of Graves' patients have elevated Anti-TPO antibodies. 🧾 Example Lab Report Test Result Reference Range Anti-TPO Antibodies 120 IU/mL < 35 IU/mL ✅ Interpretation: Elevated — consistent with autoimmune thyroiditis. Interpretation should be made alongside TSH, Free T4, and Free T3. 📈 Clinical Use of Anti-TPO Test Purpose Why It’s Helpful Diagnosing Hashimoto’s Confirms autoimmune hypothyroidism Predicting thyroid dysfunction High risk of hypothyroidism over time Postpartum thyroid screening Identifies at-risk women Monitoring autoimmune thyroid disease Tracks antibody levels over time 🔍 Important Notes A positive result does not always mean thyroid dysfunction — some healthy individuals have antibodies without symptoms. Antibody levels can fluctuate, and high levels do not always correlate with severity. Common in: Women Family history of autoimmune disease Type 1 diabetes, celiac disease, rheumatoid arthritis ✅ Summary Feature Description Test Anti-TPO Antibodies Indicates Autoimmune attack on thyroid Common in Hashimoto’s, Graves’ disease High Levels Predict thyroid dysfunction Not Diagnostic Alone Always interpret with TSH, T4, T3

🧪 Tetanus IgG Antibody Test The Tetanus IgG test measures the level of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies against the tetanus toxin, indicating immunity to Clostridium tetani, the bacterium responsible for tetanus. It is commonly used to assess immune protection following vaccination or exposure. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Tetanus Toxoid IgG Antibodies Sample Type Blood (serum) Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Method Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) Turnaround Time 1–3 days 📊 Reference Ranges & Interpretation Tetanus IgG Level Interpretation 🔴 < 0.1 IU/mL No protective immunity – booster recommended ⚠️ 0.1–1.0 IU/mL Borderline/uncertain – consider booster ✅ ≥ 1.0 IU/mL Adequate immunity IU/mL = International Units per milliliter Protection may last 10 years or more after full vaccination, but wanes over time. 💉 When is this test used? To check immune status after vaccination (especially in older adults) When there's uncertainty about tetanus vaccine history After injury or wound exposure, especially with unknown vaccination status In immunocompromised individuals or those with inadequate vaccine response 💉 Vaccination Schedule (Tetanus) Vaccine Schedule DTaP (children) 5 doses (2, 4, 6, 15–18 months, 4–6 years) Tdap/Td (adults) 1 dose Tdap, then Td booster every 10 years Wound management Booster needed if >5 years since last dose ✅ Summary Test Tetanus IgG Antibody Test Purpose Assess immunity to tetanus Sample Serum (blood) Protective Level ≥ 1.0 IU/mL Booster Needed? If level < 0.1 IU/mL or >10 years since last shot Follow-up Vaccination or booster if low

🧪 Coombs Test – Direct (Direct Antiglobulin Test, DAT) The Direct Coombs Test detects antibodies or complement proteins that are already attached to the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). It is primarily used to diagnose hemolytic anemia caused by autoimmune, drug-induced, or transfusion-related reactions. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Test Name Direct Coombs Test (Direct Antiglobulin Test, DAT) Sample Type Whole Blood (EDTA tube) Method Gel card method / Tube agglutination Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time 1–2 days 📊 Interpretation of Results Result Interpretation Negative No antibodies/complement detected on RBCs – rules out immune hemolysis. Positive Indicates presence of antibodies or complement coating the RBCs – suggests immune hemolysis. 🧬 Common Clinical Uses Diagnosing autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) Investigating hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) Monitoring transfusion reactions Drug-induced hemolysis evaluation ⚠️ Conditions with Positive DAT Condition Explanation Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) Body produces antibodies against its own RBCs Hemolytic disease of newborn (HDN) Maternal antibodies destroy fetal RBCs Transfusion reaction Mismatched blood leads to destruction of transfused RBCs Drug-induced hemolysis Drugs trigger immune reaction against RBCs Infections or malignancies (rarely) May lead to secondary hemolysis ✅ Summary Test Direct Coombs Test (DAT) Purpose Detects antibodies or complement bound to RBC surfaces Sample Whole blood (EDTA) Used For Diagnosing immune hemolysis, HDN, transfusion reactions Positive Result Indicates immune-mediated destruction of RBCs

🧬 BRAF V600E Mutation Test The BRAF V600E mutation test detects a specific genetic change (substitution of valine (V) with glutamic acid (E) at position 600) in the BRAF gene, which plays a crucial role in cell growth and division. This mutation leads to uncontrolled cell signaling via the MAPK/ERK pathway, contributing to cancer development. 🔬 Test Overview Parameter Details Gene Tested BRAF (specifically V600E mutation) Mutation Type Point mutation: Valine (V) → Glutamic Acid (E) at codon 600 Sample Type Tissue biopsy (tumor), blood (liquid biopsy in some cases) Method PCR, Real-Time PCR, NGS (Next-Gen Sequencing), or Sanger Sequencing Fasting Required? ❌ Not required Turnaround Time Typically 5–10 days, varies by laboratory 📊 Clinical Significance of BRAF V600E Cancer Type Relevance of V600E Mutation Melanoma ~50% of cutaneous melanomas carry this mutation Thyroid cancer (Papillary) Present in ~40% of cases; linked to more aggressive disease Colorectal cancer Found in ~10% of cases; associated with poor prognosis Hairy cell leukemia Nearly 100% carry this mutation Non-small cell lung cancer Present in a small subset Brain tumors (e.g., gliomas) Present in some low- and high-grade gliomas 💊 Treatment Implications The presence of BRAF V600E mutation may make patients eligible for targeted therapies, such as: Drug Class Examples BRAF inhibitors Vemurafenib, Dabrafenib MEK inhibitors Trametinib, Cobimetinib Combination therapy Dabrafenib + Trametinib (e.g., in melanoma or thyroid cancer) ⚠️ Effectiveness and availability of these treatments depend on the cancer type, mutation status, and clinical setting. ✅ Summary Test BRAF V600E Mutation Test Purpose Detect mutation that drives tumor growth Sample Tumor tissue or blood (ctDNA) Key Cancers Melanoma, thyroid, colorectal, HCL, lung Therapeutic Value Indicates potential for BRAF/MEK inhibitor therapy Clinical Relevance Prognostic and predictive marker

🧪 Spot Urine Protein-Creatinine Ratio (UPCR) The Urine Protein-Creatinine Ratio (UPCR) is a test done on a random urine sample to assess how much protein is being excreted by the kidneys relative to creatinine. It is a simple, reliable alternative to a 24-hour urine protein test. 💡 Why This Test Is Important The UPCR helps evaluate and monitor: ✅ Proteinuria (excess protein in urine) ✅ Kidney function (especially in diabetes, hypertension) ✅ Chronic kidney disease (CKD) ✅ Nephrotic syndrome or glomerular diseases 🧬 What Is Being Measured? Protein (mg/dL) in urine Creatinine (mg/dL) in urine 🧮 The ratio is calculated as: UPCR = Urine Protein (mg/dL) / Urine Creatinine (mg/dL) Reported in mg protein/g creatinine This normalizes protein loss for variations in urine concentration. 📊 Reference Range & Interpretation UPCR (mg/g) Interpretation < 150 Normal protein excretion 150–500 Mild proteinuria 500–3,000 Moderate proteinuria (suggests glomerular damage) > 3,000 Severe proteinuria (often seen in nephrotic syndrome) Note: In children, pregnancy, and bodybuilders, normal ranges may differ slightly. 🧾 Test Details Sample: Random (spot) urine sample Fasting: ❌ Not required Preferred sample: First morning urine (more accurate) 🔍 Advantages of UPCR Convenient – No need for 24-hour urine collection Reliable – Correlates well with total daily protein excretion Useful for monitoring proteinuria in chronic conditions (like diabetic nephropathy) 📌 Summary Table Test Marker Use UPCR Ratio of protein to creatinine in urine Detect and monitor proteinuria and kidney disease

🤰 Urine Pregnancy Test (UPT) – Card Method The Urine Pregnancy Test (UPT) using the card method is a quick, qualitative test to detect the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone in urine. It is commonly used for early detection of pregnancy. ✅ Purpose of the Test To confirm pregnancy Easy and fast home or clinical screening Useful when periods are missed or delayed 🧬 What Is Being Tested? The test detects hCG hormone, which is produced by the placenta shortly after a fertilized egg implants in the uterus. It is only found during pregnancy. 🧪 Test Method: Card (Cassette) Format Step Description 1. Collect urine Use a clean, dry container (first morning urine preferred for accuracy) 2. Apply sample Use a dropper to add a few drops of urine to the test card’s sample well 3. Wait for results Results appear within 3–5 minutes 🔍 Interpreting the Results Result Line Interpretation Two lines (Test & Control) Positive – hCG detected (pregnant) One line (Control only) Negative – No hCG detected (not pregnant or too early) No line or only test line Invalid – Retest with a new device ✅ Note: A faint test line still indicates a positive result. 📅 When to Take the Test Best taken after a missed period First morning urine is most concentrated and gives more reliable results If tested too early, may yield a false negative — retest in 2–3 days if period doesn’t start 📌 Advantages Fast, easy, and private No blood draw No special preparation or fasting needed Can be done at home or clinic ⚠️ Limitations Not quantitative – doesn’t show hCG level or pregnancy progress Early testing may yield false negatives Certain medications or rare tumors may cause false positives For confirmation or complications, a beta hCG blood test or ultrasound is recommended 🧾 Summary Table Test Type Detects Use UPT (Card Method) Qualitative hCG hormone Confirms pregnancy (yes/no)

🧪 Procalcitonin (PCT) Test The Procalcitonin (PCT) test is used to detect systemic bacterial infections and sepsis, helping doctors differentiate between bacterial and viral infections. It is especially useful in critically ill patients and in monitoring the severity and response to treatment of infections. 🧬 What Is Procalcitonin? Procalcitonin is a precursor of the hormone calcitonin. Under normal conditions, it's produced in small amounts by the thyroid. During systemic bacterial infection, it is produced in large amounts by many tissues in response to bacterial toxins and pro-inflammatory cytokines. It does not rise significantly in viral infections — making it helpful in distinguishing the two. 📊 Normal Reference Range Result (ng/mL) Interpretation < 0.05 Normal (no significant infection) 0.05 – 0.5 Low risk of sepsis; localized infection possible 0.5 – 2.0 Suggestive of systemic bacterial infection > 2.0 High risk of severe bacterial infection or sepsis 🧾 Example Lab Result Test Result Reference Range Procalcitonin 1.2 ng/mL < 0.05 ng/mL ✅ Interpretation: Elevated PCT — suggests ongoing systemic bacterial infection, possibly requiring antibiotic therapy. 🧪 Clinical Uses of PCT Scenario Use of Procalcitonin Suspected sepsis Early detection and severity assessment Differentiate bacterial vs viral Helps avoid unnecessary antibiotics Monitor treatment Declining levels = successful antibiotic therapy Post-surgical complications Detect hidden infections Pneumonia, UTI, or intra-abdominal infections Guide treatment decisions 📉 Low Procalcitonin – What It Means Viral infections Non-infectious inflammation (e.g., autoimmune disease, trauma) Effective antibiotic therapy (if levels are falling) ⚠️ Limitations Can be falsely elevated in: Major surgery Trauma Burns Some cancers Should not be used alone — always interpreted with clinical signs, cultures, and other labs (e.g., CRP, WBC count). ✅ Summary Feature Description Test Procalcitonin (PCT) Use Detect bacterial infections/sepsis Normal Level < 0.05 ng/mL High Level Suggests systemic bacterial infection Low/Normal Level Suggests viral infection or no sepsis Monitoring Tool Guides antibiotic initiation & stopping